| Cognitive Models | E |
Main Points:
Cognitive views of learning and philosophical views of independent language learning can be linked to each other and inform the design of the CILL Internet site as they can form a theoretical basis for autonomous language learning on the Internet.
Cognitive models of human learning can be related to the navigation system of the Internet and this relationship can be utilised in independent language learning. The hyperlink navigational system of the Internet takes advantage of the cognitive processes of connection, accretion, articulation and solidification described by Eklund (1995). Briefly, in ‘connection’ weak cognitive links are created between new and old knowledge. This is an introductory stage, and can be seen in links to new information that give a brief description of the information that can be found by following the link. In ‘accretion’ the knowledge is expanded and many new links are created. This is the input of new material, and happens on the CILL site when a user accesses new materials. In ‘articulation’ many links are strengthened while some are deleted. On the CILL site this might happen, for example as a user decides which learning strategies to use for a task, and which to ignore. The final stage is ‘solidification’, when links are strengthened. On the CILL site this may happen as users re-visit this information on learning strategies and put the strategies into practice.
These mental links are reflected in the hyperlinks used for navigation on the Internet, which allow learners to investigate a topic in a depth that gives the learner "the freedom to exercise judgment about what is to be learned and at what pace" Eklund (1995). The four stages are reflected in the information about how to learn English on the Internet. Eklund also suggests a list of Frequently-asked Questions (a FAQ) and the four-stage learning process is reflected in the learner pathways.
Benson (1997: 22 - 24) loosely links different approaches to language learning to various versions of learner autonomy, and some features of the CILL site reflect these links.
He links positivist approaches to language learning to technical versions of learner autonomy. Positivism suggests that learning may happen in two situations. Firstly it may be the transmission of knowledge from one individual to another. This may be a face-to-face interaction, or one that is computer-mediated. Secondly, it may be the discovery of new knowledge by hypothesis testing. This may also occur on the Internet, for example the CILL Internet site has links to help the students ‘meet’ e-mail pen-pals. The hypothesis testing takes place when these pen-pals engage in authentic communication and test whether the English they have produced is understood by their interlocutor.
Technical versions of autonomy mainly seek to prepare the learner for learning after their formal education has finished. The CILL Internet site prepares the learners by equipping learners with such technical skills, for example by giving information on learner strategies and learner training. An example of the positivist / technical link is that learners can be trained to formulate hypotheses about English, and then test them. For example learners can formulate a hypothesis about the standard greetings and signing off formalities are done in e-mail messages, and then test them by communicating with their e-mail pen-pals. They could also formulate a hypothesis about grammar, and then test it by searching through an Internet grammar source or by using the Internet’s search engines as concordancers. Hypotheses can also be tested less autonomously by e-mailing a tutor.
Benson also links constructivist approaches to language learning with psychological versions of autonomy. In constructivist theory "each learner constructs his or her own version of the target language." The CILL Internet site encourages the development of learners idiolect and the development of the learner’s interlanguage through access to on-line input materials and access to opportunities to practise the skills and knowledge learned through authentic communication, for example through on-line discussions in which interaction and the negotiation of meaning are emphasised.
Benson describes psychological versions of autonomy as emphasising the learner’s personality, attitudes and behaviour, which allow the learner to take control of his or her own learning. The CILL Internet site allows learners to investigate their own personalities by analysing their learning styles, to analyse and perhaps modify their attitudes towards learning without a teacher, and to modify their behaviour by learning the behaviour of a more independent language learner (see below).
Finally, Benson links political versions of learner autonomy with critical philosophies of learning. He suggests that political versions of learner autonomy suggest that learners should have control over both their own learning and the institutional context of that learning. He hypothesises that as the degree of a learner’s autonomy grows, he or she becomes more critically aware of the social context of learning the target language. Thus a learner may become more aware of the social choices that can be made, for example which variety of English he or she wishes to learn. The Internet provides access to different varieties of English, for example, British, American, and Australian varieties. The CILL Internet site provides links to both British English and American English dictionaries, even though the institutional context of HKPU is that its official variety of English is British English.
Versions of autonomy with a political aspect sometimes also raise the issue of whether autonomy / independence is a Western ideal (Farmer & Sweeney 1994, Naoko 1995, Benson 1995, Esch 1996, Tang 1996) and whether it is cultural imperialism to force it on learners from more collectivist societies. This is discussed in the Frequently-asked Questions (FAQ) section of the CILL Internet site and below in the section on learners.
Benson, Phil (1997) The philosophy and politics of learner autonomy. In Benson, Phil & Voller, Peter, eds. (1997) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning London: Longman, 18 - 34
Benson , Phil (1995) Self-access and Collaborative Learning. Independence Summer 1995 Vol. 12, pp.6-11
Eklund, John (1995) Cognitive models for structuring hypermedia and implications for learning from the world-wide web Online Internet http://www.scu.au/ausweb95/papers/hypertext/eklund/index.html
Farmer, Richard & Sweeney, Elaine (1994) Self-access in Hong Kong: A square peg in a round hole? Occasional Papers in Language Teaching 4 (ELT Unit: Chinese University of Hong Kong), pp. 24-30.
Naoko Aoki (1995) Autonomy in Asia. Independence Summer 1995 Vol. 12, pp.4-6
Tang, Catherine (1996) Collaborative Learning: the Latent Dimension in Chinese Students’ Learning. In Watkins & Biggs (eds.) (1996) The Chinese Learner: cultural, psychological and contextual influences Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong, 183 - 204