Academic Writing Style Guide
Academic writing is a formal writing style used in academic and scientific contexts that covers complex ideas, and presents information with precision, clarity and objectivity. It is also well-planned and clearly organised into specific sections with appropriate headings and sub-headings. The following guide contains advice on how to write in an appropriate academic style and what language features to avoid when writing an academic text.
Part I: Avoiding inappropriate style
In academic contexts, ideas are communicated using formal language. Below are language features that are considered to be informal and should not be used in academic writing.
1. Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb contains either an adverb or preposition and is generally considered to be too informal for academic writing.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
This paper looks at the use of biological treatment methods to degrade endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in wastewater.
Appropriate alternative:
This paper examines/investigates/researches the use of biological treatment methods to degrade endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in wastewater.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
An experiment by Harris and Lee [5] backed up the findings of Wong and Ellis [23].
Appropriate alternative:
An experiment by Harris and Lee [5] supported the findings of Wong and Ellis [23].
2. Colloquial Expressions
These expressions, which are commonly used in everyday language, should not be used in academic writing. They tend to be vague (non-specific) and do not always express ideas clearly.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
In sum/In a nutshell, the goal of this project is to […].
Appropriate alternative:
To conclude/summarise, the goal of this project is to […].
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
Lots of studies have detailed multiple techniques used to degrade pollutants in industrial wastewater.
Appropriate alternative:
Numerous studies/ A large number of studies have detailed multiple techniques used to degrade pollutants in industrial wastewater.
Example 3
Inappropriate version:
Zhang (2011) was a really interesting study as it examined expressiveness-oriented summarization.
Appropriate alternative:
Zhang (2011) was a very interesting study/an extremely interesting study/a particularly interesting study, as it examined expressiveness-oriented summarization.
Example 4
Inappropriate version:
It is a must to examine the role of industrial pollutants on waterbodies.
Appropriate alternative:
It is essential to/necessary to/crucial to/vital to examine the role of industrial pollutants on waterbodies.
3. Clichés
Clichés are overused expressions that suggest a lack of original thought. One such example is ‘a coin has two sides’, which is better stated as ‘there are multiple opinions of/perspectives on this topic’.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
As is known to all, graphene, one of the most widely-known monoelement 2D materials, has a relatively high electron mobility.
Appropriate alternative:
It is widely accepted that graphene, one of the most widely-known monoelement 2D materials, has a relatively high electron mobility.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
Protein subcellular localisation is a hot topic.
Appropriate alternative:
Protein subcellular localisation is a significant/important/major research topic.
4. Connectives at the beginning of each sentence
Writers should avoid always beginning each sentence with a connective, e.g. “and”, “but”, “because”, “actually”, as this is generally considered inappropriate in academic writing.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
Another finding is that […]. But topic sentences hold important information about a specific genre or domain.
Appropriate alternative:
Another finding is that […]. Topic sentences, however, hold important information about a specific genre or domain.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
Actually, with a proper load sharing control algorithm, the output power of a wind power plant (WPP) can be regulated.
Appropriate alternative:
With a proper load sharing control algorithm, the output power of a wind power plant (WPP) can in fact be regulated.
5. Rhetorical questions
Rhetorical questions (questions for which no answer is expected) should be avoided in academic writing.
Example
Inappropriate version:
There is significant evidence to show that peripheral refraction may play a key role in the onset of myopia. So how can this be remedied?
Appropriate alternative:
There is significant evidence to show that peripheral refraction may play a key role in the onset of myopia. It is necessary to examine how the onset of myopia can be remedied.
Note: The writer uses a statement to follow the first sentence.
6. Run-on expressions
Expressions such as “etc.” and “so on” are examples of ‘run-on’ expressions and should not be used in academic writing, as they provide incomplete information to the reader. See below.
Example
Inappropriate version:
Various AOTs have been proposed and evaluated within the research community, including stand-alone AOTs. Examples are ozonation (Derco et al. 2013), ultraviolet irradiation (UV) (Chen et al. 2009a) and ultrasonic irradiation (US) (Petrier et al. 1996) etc.
Appropriate alternative:
Various AOTs have been proposed and evaluated within the research community, including stand-alone AOTs such as ozonation (Derco et al. 2013), ultraviolet irradiation (UV) (Chen et al. 2009a) and ultrasonic irradiation (US) (Petrier et al. 1996).
Note: The words “such as” is used to inform the reader that not all possible examples have been listed.
7. Contractions
Contractions including “e.g.”, “I’ve”, “there’s” should not be used as they are too informal. The full forms (“I have” and “there is”) should be used. See below.
Example
Inappropriate version:
It’s envisaged that there’ll be considerable interest in the application of HFAC technology.
Appropriate alternative:
It is envisaged that there will be considerable interest in the application of HFAC technology.
8. Personal reference
In academic writing, writers tend to avoid using the personal pronoun “I” because this makes their research appear subjective.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
In Section 2, I examine the use of advanced oxidation technologies to degrade pollutants.
Appropriate alternative:
Section 2 examines the use of advanced oxidation technologies to degrade pollutants.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
It is my goal to build a framework to capture both global and local coherence.
Appropriate alternative:
This research aims at building a framework that encapsulates both local and global coherence.
Example 3
Inappropriate version:
In Table 2, I present the findings … (Active voice)
Appropriate alternative:
The findings are presented in Table 2. (Passive voice)
Note:
In co-authored papers, authors sometimes use “we” to refer to their research procedures (“we investigated the …”) or their observations (“we believe the effect of …”). It is however, not appropriate to use “I”. “I” is rarely used in academic writing and should not be used unless you have received permission from your supervisor. In academic texts in Computer Science, both “we” and “I” are used (including the Methodology section). The pronoun “we” can be used in both single and co-authored academic texts.
9. Negativity
a) Using “not + adjectives or/and adverbs
Writers should avoid the overuse of negative forms such as, “not many”, “not much” and sentence patterns that highlight the negative aspect of an item.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
Not much research has been conducted into job stress in universities.
In Section 2, I examine the use of advanced oxidation technologies to degrade pollutants.
Appropriate alternative:
Little research has been conducted into job stress in universities.
Section 2 examines the use of advanced oxidation technologies to degrade pollutants.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
These software/tools, however, are intended for advanced users [98], or too general with results that are not so accurate [92].
Appropriate alternative:
These software/tools, however, are intended for advanced users [98], or too general with results that are inaccurate [92].
Note: In the above sentence, the author intends to emphasise the inaccuracy of the results. A positive construction (“are inaccurate”) would be more direct.
| Here are a few examples of negative forms and their positive equivalents. | |
| Negative form | Positive equivalent |
| not able | unable |
| not clear | unclear |
| not different | alike/similar |
| not many | few |
| not possible | impossible |
| not the same as | different from |
| not often | rarely |
b) Very strong negative words
Writers should avoid using words such as “useless” and “the worst” and use more cautious language to express negative ideas.
Example
Inappropriate version:
Table 9.7 shows that amino-acid composition and its variant are not good features for subcellular localization. AA method performs the worst.
Appropriate alternative:
Table 9.7 shows that amino-acid composition and its variant are ineffective determinants of subcellular localization. Among all methods, the AA method performs most unsatisfactorily.
10. Imprecise terminology
Academic communication is precise and explicit to prevent misunderstanding. Words such as “thing”, “someone” “something”, and other similarly vague terms are not used. Writing can be made more precise by avoiding the use of the following items.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
Many things need to be considered when discussing this issue.
Appropriate alternative:
A variety of factors need to be considered when discussing this issue.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
This issue concerns everybody.
Appropriate alternative:
This issue concerns the general public of Hong Kong.
11. Incorrect use of “it”
a) Using “it” when the reference is not clear
The pronoun “it” should not be used when the item it is referring to is not clear.
Example
Inappropriate version:
The circuit diagram of the proposed active quasi-circulator is shown in Fig. 2. Its typology is similar to that formed by cascading four single stage distributed amplifiers.
Note: “It” may refer to either “circuit diagram” or “proposed active quasi-circulation”.
Appropriate alternative:
The circuit diagram of the proposed active quasi-circulator is shown in Fig. 2. The typology of the active quasi-circulator is similar to that formed by cascading four single stage distributed amplifiers
Note: To avoid ambiguity, “Its typology” can be rewritten as “The typology of + the referent”.
b) Using “it” instead of “this”
“It” cannot be used to point to an earlier sentence as it is a pronoun that is generally used to refer to an item. To refer back to an earlier sentence, “this” should be used.
Example
Inappropriate version:
The study provides a practical framework. It is because it is based on empirical data..
Appropriate alternative:
The study provides a practical framework. This is because it is based on empirical data.
12. Subjective language
Subjective expressions should be avoided because statements made should be factual, impersonal and unemotional. They should also be logical and supported by academically sound sources to strengthen one’s arguments.
Example
Inappropriate version:
Research shows that Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) is one of the most wonderful PAEs and always used as a plasticizer in the manufacture of non-vinyl commercial products. […] An excellent study evaluating the contamination status of the lower reaches of Yangtze River (China) showed that DBP was present as a dangerous contaminant responsible for thyroid receptor antagonist activities (Xu et al. 2013b), and therefore represented a frightening threat to drinking water safety. Dargnat et al. (2009) brilliantly detected DBP as one of the most frequent PAEs contaminants in the River Seine estuary in France.
Appropriate alternative:
Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) is one of the most common PAEs and mainly used as a plasticizer in the manufacture of non-vinyl commercial products (Lau et al. 2005, Staples et al. 2011). […] A recent study evaluating the contamination status of the lower reaches of Yangtze River (China) showed that DBP was present as a key contaminant responsible for thyroid receptor antagonist activities (Xu et al. 2013b), and therefore represented a significant threat to drinking water safety. DBP was also detected as one of the most frequent PAEs contaminants in the River Seine estuary in France (Dargnat et al. 2009)
Note: In this revised version, the potential dangers of DBP are stated by making objective and factual statements with support from relevant research. The more objective alternatives are highlighted.
Part II: Adopting Appropriate Academic Style
1. Hedging (using cautious language)
Academics communicate their message in a tentative (less emphatic or forceful) manner instead of using an assertive tone to avoid being challenged or criticised. This is true when they critique fellow researchers or make claims about their own research. The technique used to make their statements more cautious is called hedging.
| clearly | obviously | without a doubt | certainly |
| undoubtedly | definitely | there is no doubt that | absolutely |
Words such as “always”, “never”, “every” and “all” convey a strong message of certainty which may not be accurate or applicable to all situations. Writers also ‘hedge’ their claims by using:
a) Useful hedging verbs
Hedging verbs such as “suggest”, “indicate”, “estimate” and “imply”, “appear” and “seem to”, “tend to” are frequently used in academic writing to reduce the strength of claims.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
ANNs are unstable predictors and the proposed model (Jin & Zhang, 2011) has a roughly 20% error rate in forecasting, proving that allocation of an evaluated risk may be distorted.
Appropriate alternative:
ANNs are unstable predictors and the proposed model (Jin & Zhang, 2011) has a roughly 20% error rate in forecasting, suggesting that allocation of an evaluated risk may be distorted.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
This is certainly not the case for the ultrasound process since the chloride ion is restricted to the bulk-aqueous phase.
Appropriate alternative:
This does not appear to be the case for the ultrasound process since the chloride ion is restricted to the bulk-aqueous phase.
Example 3
Inappropriate version:
The definitions of public private partnership of course depend on the countries and international organisations concerned.
Appropriate alternative:
The definitions of public private partnership seem to mainly depend on the countries and international organisations concerned.
Example 4
Inappropriate version:
It was found that nitrate significantly improved NP photolysis, but had little effect on sonolytic degradation, demonstrating the positive role of nitrate in NP sonophotolysis.
Appropriate alternative:
It was found that nitrate significantly improved NP photolysis, but had little effect on sonolytic degradation, implying the positive role of nitrate in NP sonophotolysis.
Example 5
Inappropriate version:
Most problems occur in the initial phase of implementation of the system.
Appropriate alternative:
Most problems tend to occur in the initial phase of implementation of the system.
Note: In the above example, “tend to” makes the claim about risks less certain.
b) Useful modal verbs for hedging
Modal verbs are used to reduce the certainty of the writer’s claims and make them more tentative. Examples of modal verbs are “may”, “might”, “can” and “could”.
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
Though the model was developed based on the regeneration process, the model can without a doubt be applied for the dehumidification process.
Appropriate alternative:
Though the model was developed based on the regeneration process, the model could be applied for the dehumidification process.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
The proposed model will improve the rate of error detection.
Appropriate alternative:
The proposed model may improve the rate of error detection.
Example 3
Inappropriate version:
Therefore, the observed improvement in compound degradation rate with [NaCl] at the two ultrasonic frequencies is obviously due to a “salting out” effect.
Appropriate alternative:
The observed improvement in compound degradation rate with [NaCl] at the two ultrasonic frequencies might be due to a “salting out” effect.
c) Useful adverbs for hedging
Adverbs are often used when a writer wishes to be cautious when making observations. Some examples are listed below:
| probably | possibly | perhaps | arguably |
| apparently | seemingly | presumably | conceivably |
| generally | largely | primarily | predominantly |
| mainly | usually |
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
Fossilisation accounts for many language errors that occur in the writing of adults.
Appropriate alternative:
Fossilisation possibly accounts for many language errors that occur in the writing of adults.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
Support from parents has a large impact on a child’s academic success.
Appropriate alternative:
Support from parents arguably has a large impact on a child’s academic success.
d) Useful adjectives for hedging
Another technique to reduce the certainty of one’s claims is to use an adjective.
| probable | possible | arguable | unlikely | likely |
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency determined in 2000 that ATZ does not cause cancer in humans.
Appropriate alternative:
The U.S. Environmental Agency determined in 2000 that ATZ is not likely to cause cancer in humans.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
The reasons for errors in the use of passive voice will be examined.
Appropriate alternative:
The possible reasons for errors in the use of passive voice will be examined.
e) Useful nouns for hedging
The following nouns are often used to hedge claims:
| probability | possibility | evidence | likelihood | indication | tendency |
Example 1
Inappropriate version:
Country and global level experiences (Hall, 1999 and Auriol & Blanc, 2009) have revealed corrupt practices in PPP water supply contracts.
Appropriate alternative:
Country and global level experiences (Hall, 1999; Boehm & Polanco, 2003; Auriol & Blanc, 2009) have revealed evidence of corrupt practices in PPP water supply contracts.
Note: In the above example, the author uses “evidence of” to avoid making a strong claim about corrupt practices and to show that there is evidence to substantiate the claim.
Example 2
Inappropriate version:
Positive feedback from users demonstrates the usefulness of the device.
Appropriate alternative:
Positive feedback from users is an indication of the usefulness of the device.
Note: In this example, the author uses “is an indication of” to replace the more assertive demonstrates.