Inappropriate Writing Style in Word Choice
Academic writing requires the use of appropriate, formal language and precise expressions that make the writing clear and unambiguous. Using formal language relates to making suitable choices when selecting verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Verbs
In academic writing, verbs are used to refer to the researcher’s actions, to report on published research in the field and to state facts. The use of phrasal verbs, inaccurate reporting verbs and imprecise verbs could cause misunderstanding of an academic text.
Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb with both an adverb and a preposition, with the combined use signaling a different meaning from that of the original verb. Some phrasal verbs are not appropriate in academic writing as they are imprecise and informal and can have a variety of idiomatic meanings depending on the context of their use.
Examples of inappropriate use of the phrasal verb 'make up'
- 42 200-word extracts and 39 400-word extracts were collected, which make up the experimental dataset.
- Treated as a whole, they make up scripts or frames in our mental representation (Schank and Abelson, 1977).
- A PV array is made up of a number of module strings connected in parallel, to increase the current of the array.
Academically appropriate version
- 42 200-word extracts and 39 400-word extracts were collected, which comprise the experimental dataset.
- Treated as a whole, they form scripts or frames in our mental representation (Schank and Abelson, 1977).
- A PV array is constructed from a number of module strings connected in parallel, to increase the current of the array.
Incorrect use of reporting verbs
Reporting verbs are used to cite academic sources. Here is one example:
Nakashima and Nishikawa [3] pioneered the prediction of proteins by using a simple-odds statistics ratio to discriminate between soluble intracellular and extracellular proteins based on AA and PairAA information.
Care should be exercised when selecting reporting verbs as incorrect choices could convey unintended meanings. Commonly noted errors in this category include the misuse of “mention”, “claim” and “argue”.
Mention
Academic writers fully explain and support their arguments. It is extremely rare that one will briefly state an idea, i.e. mention it, with no details at all. As a result, “mention” is inappropriate when describing your own or others’ work unless you intend to critique the author’s discussion of the topic. It has an informal register, similar to “say”, so it should be replaced with an appropriate synonym such as “detail”, “describe” or “discuss” among others.
Examples of incorrect use of ‘mention’
- In the last section, the contributions of this study to the field of the adolescent depression are mentioned, in addition to several limitations and suggestions for further studies.
- Hence, as mentioned in section 2.3.4 and Table 2.4, each part of the questionnaire had a different number of valid responses.
- In section 3.7, the authors mention that the architecture can be simplified by loosely coupling between velocity controls and INS process through the velocity update control.
Academically appropriate version
- The last section describes the contribution of the study to the field of adolescent depression, outlines the limitations of the study and presents suggestions for further research.
- As shown in Section 2.3.4 and Table 2.4, each part of the questionnaire generated a different number of valid responses.
- In section 3.7, the authors explain how the architecture can be simplified by loosely coupling between velocity controls and INS process through the velocity update control.
Claim
This reporting verb should be used with caution as it signals the author’s lack of acceptance of another researcher’s idea or argument and is followed by an evaluation or refutation of the claim. In the following example, “claim” is used correctly as the author follows up with a refutation of the idea presented by the first study.
Kumar et al. (2008) claimed that SFLF can be used to predict the pollutant emissions of flame. However, this idea was refuted by Mishra et al. (2013), who demonstrated that […].
See the following table for examples of incorrect use of this reporting verb and how they can be replaced with other more appropriate words.
Incorrect use of ‘claim’
- Kumar et al. (2008) claimed that SFLF can be used to predict the pollutant emissions of flame.
- Vanquickenborne (2012) claimed that a premix zoned on the base of a lifted diffusion flame could determine the stability of flame has been widely accepted in later studies.
Academically-appropriate version
- Kumar et al. (2008) demonstrated that SFLF can be used to predict the pollutant emissions of flame.
- Vanquickenborne (2012) proposed that a premix zoned on the base of a lifted diffusion flame could determine the stability of flame. This proposal has been widely accepted in later studies.
Argue
When used as a reporting verb, “argue” should only be used in specific instances where it is required to indicate a conflict of opinions among researchers. It is inappropriate to use it to report on another researcher’s actions without referring to a contrasting opinion.
The following example illustrates correct use of this reporting verb.
Kumar et al. (2008) argued that SFLF can be used to predict the pollutant emissions of flame. However, this idea was refuted by Mishra et al. (2013), who indicated the existence of other indicators of pollutant emissions.
See the following examples of incorrect use.
Incorrect use of “argue”
- Miao (2015) argues that with H2 addition, the C/H ratio of fuel mixture reduces, while the adiabatic temperature of the fuel-air flame increases.
- Rath et al. (1961) argued that automatic summaries could be compared against chosen sets of multiple human-produced summaries.
Academically-appropriate version
- Miao (2015) concludes that with H2 addition, the C/H ratio of fuel mixture reduces while the adiabatic temperature of the fuel-air flame increases.
- Rath et al. (1961) observed that automatic summaries could be compared against chosen sets of multiple human-produced summaries.
Verbs with a general meaning
Academic writing calls for precision and specificity. Verbs such as “do”, “take”, “have” and “get” lack the precision required in academic writing. For example, “do research” has a broad meaning compared to “plan research”, “organise research” and “conduct research”. Each of these verbs have precise meanings which refer to different stages of the study –planning, conducting and organising.
The following table illustrates errors in the use of precise verbs, using ‘do’ and ‘get’ as examples.
Examples of imprecise verb use
- Therefore, ordering is done first on the sentence group level and then on the (intra-group) sentence level.
- Sentence clustering is done by one-layered K-means based on the cosine between such vectors.
- The basic idea of computing event similarity is to multiply the event vector E with a similarity matrix W to get a new vector E '.
- To get the data, Bedat et al. [17] conducted an experiment under both normal gravity and reversed gravity conditions.
Academic equivalent
- Ordering is therefore applied first at the sentence group level and then at the (intra-group) sentence level.
- Sentence clustering is calculated by one-layered K-means based on the cosine between such vectors.
- The basic idea of computing event similarity is to multiply the event vector E with a similarity matrix W to yield a new vector E '.
- To collect/gather/obtain the data, Bedat et al. [17] conducted an experiment under both normal gravity and reversed gravity conditions.
Adjectives
Adjectives are evaluative words that emphasise an expert opinion, so vague comparatives such as “better”, ungradable adjectives such as “huge”, and inappropriately used adjectives such as “famous”, show a lack of precision and are inappropriate for academic writing.
Examples of categories of errors in the use of adjectives are presented below.
| Frequently misused adjectives | Example of inappropriate use | Academically-appropriate equivalent |
|---|---|---|
Better (comparative adjective) |
|
|
Tremendous |
|
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Huge/massive |
|
|
Famous |
|
|
Adverbs
The inappropriate use of adverbs in academic writing is illustrated in the following table.
Always
Thus, although consumed during the reaction, the H2O2 concentration, and thus the OH radical concentration, was always in excess relative to the DMP concentration.
As a result, the H2O2 concentration and the OH radical concentration were constantly in excess relative to the DMP concentration although consumed during the reaction.
“Always” has a very strong meaning and is often associated with exaggeration. It is usually not appropriate in academic writing where statements, particularly with reference to reviews of other research or the author’s own findings and conclusions, are tentative, and not assertive. “Always” is only appropriate to describe phenomena that can be scientifically proven to occur with absolute reliability and without any measurable variation.
Actually
There exist multi-location proteins that can simultaneously reside at, or move between, two or more different subcellular locations [124, 125, 126, 127]. Actually, proteins with multiple locations play important roles in some metabolic processes that take place in more than one compartment.
There exist multi-location proteins that can simultaneously reside at, or move between, two or more different subcellular locations [124, 125, 126, 127]. In fact, proteins with multiple locations play important roles in certain metabolic processes that take place in more than one compartment.
“Actually” should not be used at the start of a written statement because this is characteristic of spoken English. Writers should use "However,…", “Indeed,…", “In fact,…", "In contrast..." instead. “Actually” has a negative connotation, so some writers dislike the word intensely, suggesting all uses of “actually” are perhaps unsuitable in academic writing to avoid a potential negative reaction from the reader.
Nowadays
Nowadays numerical simulation is a widely used method in predicting of different kinds of reaction flows.
Numerical simulation is currently a widely-used method in predicting of different kinds of reaction flows.
The word “nowadays” has an informal register, similar to “these days”, so it is not appropriate in formal writing such as confirmation reports and theses. Neutral to formal register substitutes include “Presently,…” and “Currently,…”. However, present simple and continuous tenses convey a present time so, depending on the context, no adverb may be the best choice. Similarly, if the tense is present perfect, the most likely adverb is “Recently,…”
Obviously
Obviously, the presence of TOC in water inhibited the sonophotolytic degradation of PAEs mainly by competing for the limited radicals.
Evidently, the presence of TOC in water inhibited the sonophotolytic degradation of PAEs mainly by competing for the limited radicals.
“Obviously” is used for ideas and actions when the writer wishes to state something explicitly even though it is already known to the reader. It is often misused to modify an action which describes visible phenomena, for which adverbs such as “clearly” and “noticeably” are more precise. It also conveys extreme certainty. A more tentative expression is required for academic writing.
Enough
There is not enough fuel to support a complete IDF in this condition.
Insufficient fuel is available to support a complete IDF in this condition.
“Enough” conveys the meaning that something is adequate to satisfy a specific need or requirement. Instead of using ‘not enough” to specify something is inadequate, it is more appropriate to use “insufficient” or “inadequate”.
Hardly
In addition, the degradation mechanisms of DBP in the US, UV, and US/UV processes were hardly noted.
In addition, the degradation mechanisms of DBP in the US, UV, and US/UV processes were rarely noted.
“Hardly” is used to qualify a statement by saying it is true to an insignificant degree and is often seen as being too negative and vague for use in academic contexts. “It is difficult to” (if the intended meaning is the difficulty of doing something) and “rarely” are more acceptable options in academic writing.
Other Inappropriate Language
The table below shows more academically inappropriate words and phrases.
Some
Some researchers examined the effect of H2 addition on LBV of hydrocarbon fuels.
Some topologies with soft switching characteristics are described, including APWM resonant inverter, single-stage resonant inverter (SSRI) and two-stage resonant 15 inverter (TSRI).
Research has examined the effect of H2 addition on LBV of hydrocarbon fuels.
Three topologies with soft switching characteristics are described, being APWM resonant inverter, single-stage resonant inverter (SSRI) and two-stage resonant 15 inverter (TSRI).
Quite a few
As there may be quite a few redundant GO terms existing in a lot of protein sequences, using ISF can remove or weaken their impact on the prediction of subcellular locations.
As there may be a significant number of redundant GO terms existing in numerous protein sequences, using ISF can remove or weaken their impact on the prediction of subcellular locations.
A lot of
One possible reason for this phenomenon is that the load includes appliances requiring a lot of power during these periods, such as lighting.
One possible reason for this phenomenon is that the load includes appliances requiring significant power during these periods, such as lighting.
Academic writing focuses on precise language so quantities are usually expressed accurately. When a quantity or amount is unknown, vague quantifiers which characterise spoken English such as “some” and “a lot of” should be replaced.
Idiomatic expressions
However, the other side of the coin — a summary’s quality of being easily understood — counts no less.
This section presents a bird's-eye-view of the proposed study.
However, the other aspect - a summary’s quality of being easily understood - counts no less.
This section presents an overview of the proposed study.
Idiomatic language such as “the other side of the coin” and “a bird’s eye view” are more commonly found in spoken language and should not be used in academic writing.
Use of etc.
Teufel and Moens (1999) can be regarded as a direct implementation of Cremmins’s (1996) findings about selecting the purpose, methods, results etc.
Teufel and Moens (1999) can be regarded as a direct implementation of Cremmins’s (1996) findings related to factors such as the purpose, methods, results.
When listing, effective writers either include all the contents of a list or explain what the other members of the list are.
Numerical numbers 1-10
Details of the 2 major findings are discussed in Section 4.6.
Details of the two major findings are discussed in Section 4.6.
Writing numbers 1-10. These numbers are often spelled out in academic writing.
Not any
Rural areas often do not have any electrical power supply system.
Rural areas often have insufficient electrical power supply system.
Not many
These software/tools, however, are either quite sophisticated and not many users can manage them
These software/tools, however, are either quite sophisticated and few users can manage them.
Not much
There is not much research on this topic.
There is little research on this topic.
Not frequently
Such stressful situations are not frequently discussed.
Such stressful situations are rarely discussed.
Spoken negative forms such as not much, not many, and not any should be replaced by more formal words/expression.
Informal comparative
By studying how the attacks happen, privacy preserved schemes, like noise injection, physical vibration and others, can be applied to various sensors.
Loading on the transformer is significantly reduced, like the corresponding increase in output impedance, as the frequency of the alternating current is increased to 500Khz.
By studying how the attacks happen, privacy preserved schemes, such as noise injection and physical vibration, can be applied to various sensors.
Loading on the transformer, such as the corresponding increase in output impedance, is significantly reduced, as the frequency of the alternating current is increased to 500Khz.
The informal comparative, “like” is often used to compare similar concepts instead of “such as”, which is more appropriate for academic writing. “Such as” is used to link examples of a noun or phrase to the preceding word or phrase, and is similar in meaning to “for example”, although their grammar and use differ.
Repetition
The effect of the changing ideality factor does not have significant effect on the curve shape, and usually a higher ideality factor can slightly soften the knee of the curve. The present study considers the ideality factor as a constant value, following the method proposed in [102]. It means that the ideality factor would not change with respect to the operating condition.
The effect of the changing ideality factor does not have a significant effect on the curve shape, and usually a higher one can slightly soften the knee of the curve. The present study considers this factor as a constant value following the method proposed in [102]. This means the factor would not change the operating condition.
Using the same words or phrases repeatedly. It is better to use some alternative ways of expressing words.