Exercise 1

a)          What is the most appropriate title for the first talk?

c. Freedom of choice in American culture

Listening: Exercise 2

Listening: Exercise 3

Tapescript: Lectures on aspects of Chinese and American cultures

Lecture 1

The values held by one culture are apt to differ from those of another. Generally speaking, individualism is characteristic of Western cultures, while collectivism is a feature of Eastern cultures. Individualism is the belief that each person is distinct and ought to achieve independence from others. Individualists believe that society is only the means for an individual to reach his personal goals. In a society based on individualism, self-reliance and self-affirmation are encouraged. People can freely express their feelings without outside interference and can state different views publicly. An individual has the right to protect his privacy, to make his own choice and to lead his life in his own way. The individual is permitted to pursue his self-interest on the condition that he does not violate other people's rights or the laws and social moralities which protect the equal rights of all the people.

The society which most clearly exemplifies individualism is that of North America. For the average American, an individual's most important concern is his self-interest and in this respect he is concerned much more about his own career and his personal success than about group interests. American individualism cannot be separated from freedom. By freedom, Americans mean the ability of all individuals to control their own destiny without outside interference. Americans expect freedom of choice in almost everything. They are free to choose a college and what to study there. They are free to choose a job which they are interested in, and free to marry the person of their own choice without interference from their parents. Americans believe that children should be encouraged to make decisions for themselves, develop their own opinions, solve their own problems, and have their own points of view on different topics. Independence is seen as a product or result of freedom. Their independence in turn makes American people self-reliant and they regard relying on other people as rather shameful.

Lecture 2

Collectivism emphasises the welfare of the organisation or group. Individuals are not encouraged to pursue self-interest since this may be considered a threat to the conformity and harmony of the social group. Individuals are viewed only as members of a group and are expected to sacrifice their own interests and meet the demands of the group whenever there is a conflict. Collectivists are reluctant to attract other people's attention and they do not state views which conflict with accepted social values.

Chinese culture is based on collectivism and a great deal of social behaviour centres on the need for properly ordered social relationships. It is assumed that if every person plays their designated roles properly, then society will be well run, and happiness and harmony will be achieved and sustained. Consequently, a uniform set of values is required and self-discipline, restraint and moderation are the basic ways of dealing with other people in the group. With such an emphasis on social order and consensus, the notions of individualism and inalienable rights never flourished in China. Of course, striving for individual achievement and excellence is highly valued, but success is seen as the result of the support of one's family or other influential groups.

Lecture 3

Privacy is perhaps one of the most distinctive features deriving from the individualism of American culture. Close proximity from an early age means that Chinese people have less need for privacy and personal space than Americans, who tend to avoid close physical contact and keep at least an arm's distance when they talk with each other. Differing concepts of privacy can cause problems in intercultural interaction. For example, many Americans living in China complain that they are too often asked by Chinese about their personal matters. Questions such as "Are you married?" or "How old are you?" are common. It is not, of course, the intention of Chinese to be offensive. The Chinese inquisitiveness about other people's private lives is usually motivated by their desire to establish a more intimate personal relationship or closer friendship and this is possible because the concept of privacy is not strong in China. In Chinese culture, an individual is a member of a group within which he is exposed to constant concern or enquiry. Privacy, then, is often ignored because Chinese tend to be interested in others and are used to living in close proximity.

Patterns of family behaviour and interpersonal relationships also reflect the enormous differences between American individualism and Chinese collectivism. Chinese people respect groups and are inclined to reserve their greatest respect for their families. Chinese families are based on mutual help. Parents bring up their children and in return the children when mature will support their aged parents. This is a never-ending cycle of security and sacrifice. Although the Chinese family pattern has been changing in recent years and there is a trend towards the nuclear family system, it is, nonetheless, the children's responsibility to take care of their aged parents. For an individual, the family is actually a refuge for life, albeit a rather inquisitive one. The Chinese believe that "East or West, home is best." Each member of a family will try very hard to maintain the ongoing stability of the family and increase its prosperity. The status of the family is always the greatest concern and in return, the individual gets all the basic necessities of life from his family.

Lecture 4

The American family pattern is quite different because of Americans' desire for independence and freedom. American society is competitive and, as a result, independence is the prerequisite for success. Children cannot live with their parents all their lives. When they get married and have their own family, they treasure their privacy so much that they cannot tolerate the idea of living with their parents. Similarly, older Americans generally prefer to live independently of their children and grandchildren. Some of them even prefer to live alone in retirement houses or "old folk's homes" rather than relying on their children. They love their independence so much that they think it shameful to depend on others.

Age seems to be viewed as a negative asset in Western societies and, generally speaking, older people are shown little respect. Chinese people, however, believe that people age just like wine: the older they are, the more mature and revered because they have experienced a great deal which, by itself, is a great fortune. The belief holds that a great deal of time and energy can be saved if younger people accept the guidance of older people. This respect, or filial piety, is the basis upon which other traditional values rest. It ensures a stable family, harmonious relationships between generations and a sense of security for the old. It is of special meaning at present when people tend to be increasingly self-centered and more and more apathetic to the old and weak.

1. Introducing a presentation

· Topic

Effects of cultural background on learning style, i.e. how a learner's culture might affect his / her approach to study

· Purpose

To give useful information to those who might study overseas

· Main points to be covered:

1. Basic cultural values and their effects on teaching and learning

2. Evidence to show how approaches to learning differ in various cultures

2. Using appropriate language

3. Concluding a presentation

Tapescript: Presentation on effects of cultural background on learning style

Hello, everybody and thank you for coming. I know that you're all very busy at this time but I hope that by coming to this talk you'll at least get some useful information for when you go to study overseas. Well, today I want to talk about the effect of cultural background on learning style; that is, how a learner's culture might impact on his or her approach to study. I want to begin by looking at some basic cultural values and how these affect teaching and learning. I'll then go on to present evidence which shows that approaches to learning which are acceptable in one culture may not be acceptable in another. If you have any questions I'd be happy to answer them at the end of the talk. Now, I want to start by introducing the two concepts. They are actually contrasting concepts, these are, conserving and extending cultures. What do these terms mean?

Experts have categorised cultures as being either basically conserving or extending in their attitude to the transmission of knowledge. Let me give you an example to try to make this clear. A good example of a conserving cultural attitude is demonstrated by most Arabic cultures. Here there is the requirement to learn the holy book - the Koran - by heart. This demands a huge effort of memorisation, as you can imagine. The way the Koran is learnt impacts on the way other subjects are learnt generally. It might also have an effect on learners' perception of what constitutes an acceptable teaching style. By this I mean that the unquestioning acceptance of the messages in the Koran and the concentration and repetition necessary to memorise those messages are transferred to the learning of school subjects and to the expectations students have on teachers.

That's Arab culture. Let's turn now to Chinese culture. There is evidence to suggest that

Chinese culture is conserving in nature. For example, keeping quiet in the classroom, listening to the teacher, not talking to other students, not interacting; these tend to characterise the Chinese classroom. As a result, Chinese learners do not develop argumentation skills as quickly as their American counterparts. American students tend to be actively encouraged to question their teachers, their materials and to interact with other classmates. However, I have to say - in the interests of balance - that Chinese students tend to get better grades. They tend to work harder and with greater concentration too – but this is not the point I'm trying to make. The point is that some cultures display a conserving attitude to teaching and learning, while others (including the American) display a more extending attitude to learning.

Now, the memorisation and non-interactive styles of learning encouraged, for example, in

Chinese cultures may disadvantage learners, at least initially, when they progress from secondary school to university. Why is this? Well, it's because universities world-wide are increasingly adopting - with a few local variations - the Western requirement for students to show argumentation skills in written assignments and effective interpersonal skills in tutorials and seminars. In other words, the world model for university teaching and learning is now the Western model, the interactive model if you like.

Now of course, students from conserving backgrounds who go on to study in an extending culture will obviously need to adapt to a different learning style to accommodate to the new conditions. This, unsurprisingly, can often prove to be a painful process. However, such learners are able to make the transition quite successfully with guidance from academic staff and a lot of determination on their own part to "unlearn" or dismantle the study-related approaches and strategies acquired in their own cultures. Let me give you some examples from real life to try to illuminate this issue. I've put these on slides.

Now, let's look at the comments made by three Asian students who found the Western university system of teaching and learning very different from their previous experience. If you just look at the screen – I've put these comments on slides … as I said. This is what a Chinese undergraduate from Shanghai studying at an Australian university had to say:

Generally many of us are trained in a system where you don't contribute much to class discussions; some students even hesitated to ask questions from lecturers. Here's what a Master's student from Japan studying at an English university in London had to say:

In Japanese culture (and education) the emphasis on training seems to be on intuition rather than logical construction of arguments. This makes it much harder to study at my British University.

Finally, let's take a look at the comments by an Indian research student studying at an

American university:

One problem was getting used to the American system where a student is expected to find out for her/himself the requirements and facilities of the University. This contrasts with the system at home whereby a person, generally the lecturer/supervisor, is responsible for the needs of the student.

To sum up, then, there is certainly evidence to show that the cultural values of a society affect the way that society's educational institutions function and how the teaching in them is carried out. While ensuring the continuation of cultural identity and solidarity, the existence of culturally-determined patterns of teaching and learning means that individual learning style - the way a learner would prefer to learn - is largely ignored in classrooms around the world. Well, that's all I want to say for the moment - I hope you'll find what I've said interesting and useful when you go overseas to study. Are there any questions?